It follows paths through the Earth quite similar to those of the P-wave paths, except that no consistent evidence has yet been found that the S wave penetrates the Earth's core. Waves are represented by arrows and are traveling from left to right. The great distance between wave crests prevents tsunamis from dissipating energy as a breaking surf; instead, tsunamis cause water levels to rise rapidly along coast lines. seismic wave, vibration generated by an earthquake, explosion, or similar energetic source and propagated within the Earth or along its surface. Large earthquake-induced rock avalanches, soil avalanches, and underwater landslides can be very destructive. Seismic waves are propagating vibrations that carry energy from the source of the shaking outward in all directions. Flows travel at velocities as great as many tens of miles per hour. The objective of earthquake resistant design is to construct a building so that it can withstand the ground shaking caused by body and surface waves. [2], The Widess Model shows that beds with thickness below /8 of wavelength are not affected by frequency significantly. The are many different seismic waves, but all of basically of four types: An earthquake radiates P and S waves in all directions and the interaction of the P and S waves with Earth's surface and shallow structure produces surface waves. To overcome this problem, modern seismograph stations have three separate instruments to record horizontal waves - (1) one to record the north-south waves, (2) another to record east-west waves, and (3) a vertical one in which a weight resting on a spring tends to stand still and record vertical ground motions. The two largest contrasts in material properties in the Earth system are located near the surface and the core-mantle boundary. Flow failures on land have been catastrophic, especially in other countries. Surface waves . Due to the Fresnel zone before the migration process, a hundreds meter width can be reduced to tens of meter of migrated data.[4]. As expected, the severity of potential damage increases as the size of the displacement increases. During that event, several four-story buildings of the Kwangishicho apartment complex tipped as much as 60 degrees. It accurately measures larger earthquakes, which can last for minutes, affect a much larger area, and cause more damage. Vertical resolution determines the thickness of the beds, such as two close seismic responds corresponding to different depth levels. The different particle motion style is because each seismic wave has its characteristic movement: P waves are compressive and travel upward through the body of the earth, so have a strong vertical component. Watch these videos on YouTube, from GNS scientists: This survey will open in a new tab and you can fill it out after your visit to the site. The energy of Love waves, like that of other surface waves, spreads from the source in two directions rather than in three, and so these waves produce a strong record at seismic stations even when originating from distant earthquakes. When the pore-water pressure rises to about the pressure caused by the weight of the column of soil, the granular soil layer behaves like a fluid rather than like a solid for a short period. P waves propagate through the Earth with a speed of about 15,000 miles per hour and are the first waves to cause vibration of a building. An official website of the United States government. The simplest method of locating an earthquake on a globe is to find the time interval between the P- and S-wave arrivals at several seismograph stations. Vertical supportABholds massMin position by wireAMand by strutBMat pointB; the system becomes a seismometer when the vertical support is embedded in a concrete pier attached to the Earth. The actual interaction between a seismic wave and a contrast in rock properties is more complicated because an incident P wave generates transmitted and reflected P- and S-waves and so five waves are involved. P-wave:the primary body wave; the first seismic wave detected by seismographs; able to move through both liquid and solid rock. The displacements, lengths, and widths of surface fault ruptures show a wide range. Map of the variations in seismic shear-wave speed with respect to the value in PREM at 2,880 km depth, just above the core mantle boundary. Taken from: Hays, W.W., ed., 1981, Facing Geologic and Hydrologic Hazards -- Earth Science Considerations: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1240B, 108 p. Surface faultingis the differential movement of the two sides of a fracture at the Earth's surface and can bestrike-slip,normal, and reverse (orthrust). P-waves and S-waves are sometimes collectively called body waves. Another method of locating an earthquake is to use the P-wave arrival-time minus origin-time (P - O) interval instead of distance. Part of the energy carried by the incident wave is transmitted through the material (that's the refracted wave described above) and part is reflected back into the medium that contained the incident wave. Seismic shadow zones have taught us much about the inside of the earth. We are fortunate that the speed depends on the rock type because it allows us to use observations recorded on seismograms to infer the composition or range of compositions of the planet. IRIS facilitates seismological and geophysical research by operating and maintaining open geophysical networks and providing portable instrumentation for user-driven experiments. The shallow depth considers 10-15m and the great depth considers 20-30m. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. Like the velocity the rate of amplitude decrease with depth also depends on the period. In this condition,deformationscan occur easily. This method, however, requires that travel-time tables be available for various depths of focus. 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The more recent model of Tirado suggested that peak frequency variation is a function of bed thickness, as bed thickness decreases, peak frequency increases. A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. It increases to about 11 km (6.8 miles) per second near the centre of the Earth. Because amplitudes of low-frequency vibrations decay less rapidly than high-frequency vibrations as distance from the fault increases, tall buildings located at relatively great distances (60 miles) from a fault are sometimes damaged. Flow failures usually form in loose saturated sands or silts on slopes greater than 3 degrees. Tsunamisare water waves that are caused by sudden vertical movement of a large area of the sea floor during an undersea earthquake. Several types of interaction between waves and the subsurface geology (i.e. Body waves travel through the interior of the earth, and have two main types: P-Waves (Primary waves) are Longitudinal Waves. Also with increasing distance from the earthquake, the waves are separated apart in time and dispersed because P, S, and surface waves travel at different speeds. 07, 1035-1046. and even rushing rivers can also cause seismic waves. Liquefaction takes place when seismicshear wavespass through a saturated granular soil layer, distort its granular structure, and cause some of the void spaces to collapse. Answered by mikaaasd Love waves Step-by-step explanation Seismic waves travel fast, on the order of kilometers per second (km/s). This combination of instruments tells a seismologist the general direction of the seismic wave source, the magnitude at its source, and the character of the wave motion. Ground shaking can vary over an area as a result of factors such as topography, bedrock type and the location and orientation of the fault rupture. Typical speeds for Rayleigh waves are on the order of 1 to 5 km/s. Seismic waves are caused by the sudden movement of materials within the Earth, such as slip along We also can include the earthquake depth and the time that earthquake rupture initiated (called the "origin time") into the problem. Usually, the long periods arrive first since they are sensitive to the speeds deeper in Earth, and the deeper regions are generally faster. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Instruments at other stations must be used to get a precise fix on the earthquake's epicenter. These seismic waves include P, S, and L waves. The warm colors (red, orange, and yellow) show regions with slower than normal speeds, the darker regions are faster than normal. The animations below illustrate both the propogation of the wave as well as the motion of particles as the wave passes. This waves comes first during an earthquake, it is the . Wave propogation and particle motion for Seismic waves travel through the earth to a single seismic station. Other wave types can be generated inside the Earth by P and S waves, as shown in figure 3. Seismic Resolution: Vertical and Horizontal. The mathematics behind wave propagation is elegant and relatively simple, considering the fact that similar mathematical tools are useful for studying light, sound, and seismic waves. The interface with width less than /4 cannot be resolved. All seismic waves cause vertical movement except: s-waves p-waves love waves rayleigh waves Science Environmental Science Answer & Explanation Solved by verified expert All tutors are evaluated by Course Hero as an expert in their subject area. Scale and movement of the seismic station are greatly exaggerated to depict the relative motion recorded by the seismogram as P, S, and surface waves arrive. 01, 19-25. It is possible to detect layers down to 1/32 wavelength. Rayleigh and Love waves mainly cause low-frequency vibrations which are more efficient than high-frequency waves in causing tall buildings to vibrate. All seismic waves cause vertical movement except: The amount of energy released by the Mt. P-waves are sound waves, it's just that in seismology we are interested in frequencies that are lower than humans' range of hearing (the speed of sound in air is about 0.3 km/sec). You can picture this concept by recalling the circular waves that spread over the surface of a pond when a stone is thrown into the water. P waves, known as Primary waves, are also part of a seismic wave. This wave behaviour can also be used on a smaller scale by recording waves generated by explosions or ground vibrators in the search for oil and gas. Seismologists use seismographs to record the amount of time it takes seismic waves to travel through different layers of the Earth. The particle motion of P-waves is extension (dilation) and compression along the propagating direction. For some angles all the energy can be returned into the medium containing the incident wave. Breaks of water mains hampered efforts to fight the fire that ignited during the earthquake. The slower values corresponds to a P-wave traveling in water, the higher number represents the P-wave speed near the base of Earth's mantle. For locating a deep shock, one 700 kilometers deep, for example, travel-time tables and travel-time curves for that depth have to be used to calculate the origin time and distances. ways. [1], Vertical resolution can be calculated from the length of the propagation wave and the layer thickness below 1/4 wavelength for resolving limits of beds. Loss of Bearing Strength - When the soil supporting a building or some other structure liquefies and loses strength, large deformations can occur within the soil, allowing the structure to settle and tip. Vertical resolution can vary from shallow to great depth. P-Waves are fastest at about 6 km/s (kilometers per second) and arrive first. These waves are of two major types: 1. Combinations of the strike-slip type and the other two types of faulting can be found. The region from near 400 to 1000 km depth is called the transition zone and strongly affects body waves that "turn" at this depth and arrive about 20-30 distant from a shallow earthquake. P-waves are the first waves to arrive on a complete record of ground shaking because they travel the fastest (their name derives from this fact - P is an abbreviation for primary, first wave to arrive). This shows how P waves travel through solids and liquids, but S waves are stopped by the liquid outer core. The Fresnel zone defines horizontal resolution by the seismic signal at the certain depth. The most correct description of P-waves is it . Pressure increases with depth in Earth because the weight of the rocks above gets larger with increasing depth. The effects from earthquakes include ground shaking, surface faulting, ground failure, and less commonly, tsunamis. The diagram below is a plot of the P- and S-wave velocities and the density as a function of depth into Earth. They differ from S-waves in that they propagate through a material by alternately compressing and expanding the medium, where particle motion is parallel to the direction of wave propagation this is rather like a slinky that is partially stretched and laid flat and its coils are compressed at one end and then released. But you should keep in mind that the specific speed throughout Earth will depend on composition, temperature, and pressure. They mark the points on the record at which these waves first arrive at the station. Omissions? Incorrect Question 5 0 / 2 pts All seismic waves cause vertical movement except: S-waves P-waves. The lengths of the surface fault ruptures on land have ranged from less than 1 mile to more than 200 miles. These failures commonly move several tens of feet and, if geometric conditions permit, several tens of miles. We can measure that difference from a seismogram and if we also know the speed that the waves travel, we could calculate the distance by equating the measured time difference and the expression. Students then consider the location and predict possible damage. Rayleigh waves travel along the free surface of an elastic solid such as the Earth. Rayleigh waves are similar to water waves in the ocean (before they "break" at the surf line). This transfer of load increases pressure in the pore water, either causing drainage to occur or, if drainage is restricted, a sudden buildup of pore-water pressure. All seismic waves cause vertical movement except: NOT Rayleigh waves The "S" in S-waves stands for: Secondary or Shear The Rayleigh wave motion is most like: An ocean wave The Richter Scale measures magnitude. Note the correlation with plate boundaries and surface heat flow. Those waves contain a range of frequency that lie on certain interface and creates an individual frequency between areas of contact that cause the reflection. S Waves, known as Secondary Waves, are seismic waves that simply go about in an S shape, form, and is the second wave to arrive during an earthquake. Rayleigh waves are the slowest of all the seismic wave types and in some ways the most complicated. Corrections? The spring-suspended mass lags behind the motion caused by the earthquake, making the pen record the waves on the drum. These variations are actually quite small, on the order of a few percent, so the basic idea of Earth being a spherically stratified planet are well founded. Love, who first predicted their existencetravel faster. Learn more. Thus the simple rule of thumb for earthquakes in this distance range is the distance is about eight times the arrival time of S-wave less the arrival time of the P-wave. Earthquakes send out seismic energy as IRIS is a consortium of over 125 US universities dedicated to the operation of science facilities for the acquisition, management, and distribution of seismological data, and for fostering cooperation among IRIS members, affiliates, and other organizations in order to advance seismological research and education. The next map shows the variations at 2,880 km depth , in the mantle just above the core-mantle boundary. Sand boilscan cause local flooding and the deposition or accumulation of silt. The fact that the waves travel at speeds which depend on the material properties (elastic moduli and density) allows us to use seismic wave observations to investigate the interior structure of the planet. Reactivation of dormant slumps or block slides by earthquakes is rare. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. - P-waves are a type of compressional wave that moves with a push/pull motion. Because liquids will not sustain shear stresses, S waves will not travel through liquids like water, molten rock, or the Earths outer core. Because of the different behaviour of waves in different materials, seismologists can deduce the type of material the waves are travelling through. If an earthquake generates enough shaking intensity , built structures can be severely damaged and cliffs and sloping ground can . All the arcs should intersect at a common point - the epicenter. You can disable cookies at any time. Each wave has a characteristic time: each has its own move of travel. When an earthquake occurs, the shockwaves of released energy that shake the Earth and temporarily turn soft deposits, such as clay, into jelly ( liquefaction) are called seismic waves, from the Greek 'seismos' meaning 'earthquake'. Likewise, when an S-wave interacts with a boundary in rock properties, it too generates reflected and refracted P- and S-waves. S Wavesecondary body waves that oscillate the ground perpendicular to the direction of wave travel. Curious Minds is a Government initiative jointly led by the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, the Ministry of Education and the Office of the Prime Ministers Chief Science Advisor. The seismic wave spectrum has a significant effect on the dynamic response in both the horizontal and vertical directions. Once the S-wave arrives we can measure the time interval between the onset of P-wave and the onset of S-wave shaking. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. S-waves are transverse waves because they vibrate the ground in a the direction "transverse", or perpendicular, to the direction that the wave is traveling. Earthquakes generate four principal types of elastic waves; two, known as body waves, travel within the Earth, whereas the other two, called surface waves, travel along its surface. But when the pier shakes, the mass and strut wiggle, recording waves from the earthquake that started the boom in motion. Lateral spreads usually break up internally, forming numerous fissures and scarps. The interface characteristics may result in poor imaging quality where waves propagating through faults, erosional unconformities, cracks, salt bodies, folding, concave and convex interfaces produce strong and poor reflections. A notable exception is caused by the decrease in velocity from the mantle to the core. surface of the planet like ripples on water. There are two types of seismic resolution, being vertical and horizontal. Throw a rock into a pond or lake and watch the waves rippling out in all directions from the point of impact. On a global scale, we might expect that the shallow parts of the mantle would correlate with the major structural features we can observe at the surface - the plate boundaries. Volcanic eruptions, explosions, landslides, avalanches, and even rushing rivers can also cause seismic waves. Those that travel through the slow region are slowed down, and hence will be recorded later on the a seismogram. Aspects that control seismic resolution are velocity, frequency and wavelength. Great progress was made quickly because for the most part Earth's interior is relatively simple, divided into a sphere (the inner core) surrounded by roughly uniform shells of iron and rock. Damage caused by lateral spreads is seldom catastrophic, but it is usually disruptive. The Moment Magnitude can measure the local Richter magnitude (ML . Chopra S., J. Castagna and O. Portniaguine, 2006, Seismic resolution and thin-bed reflectivity inversion: CSEG Recorder, 31, No. There are three basic types of seismic waves P-waves, S-waves and surface waves. They usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves. P waves compress and decompress the rocks in the direction the wave is traveling as it passes through the Earth as if the rocks were a giant spring. The wavelength becomes the indicator for vertical resolution. Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the Earth. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). The curves show the paths of waves, and the lines crossing the rays show mark the wavefront at one minute intervals. It travels at a speed usually less than 6 kilometers per second in the Earth's crust and jumps to 13 kilometers per second through the core. The speed increase with depth results from increased hydrostatic pressure as well as from changes in rock composition; in general, the increase causes P waves to travel in curved paths that are concave upward. Faster waves will travel the distance quicker and show up on the seismogram first. Travel time is a relative time, it is the number of minutes, seconds, etc. Types of Seismic Waves. We can use the fact that P and S waves travel at different speeds to locate earthquakes. They are the most damaging waves, because buildings are more easily damaged from horizontal motion than from vertical motion. The amplitude of Rayleigh-wave shaking decreases with depth. The S wave is the secondary preliminary wave to be recorded. If there is no friction at the pointBand massMis reasonably large, the movement of the pier and the attached upright support in response to an earthquake wave will set up a differential motion between the mass and the pier (the inertia of the mass will make it remain at rest). In fact, we often divide the mantle into two regions, upper and lower, based on the level of velocity heterogeneity. As a result, energy does not return from the single reflection point, it creates finite region of point that influence the reflection. There are two broad classes of seismic waves: body waves and surface waves. Official websites use .gov IRIS provides management of, and access to, observed and derived data for the global earth science community. The effects of dispersion become more noticeable with increasing distance because the longer travel distance spreads the energy out (it disperses the energy). This region is called a Fresnel zone. This speed decrease bends waves backwards and creates a "P-wave Shadow Zone" between about 100 and 140 distance (1 = 111.19 km). Rayleigh Wavessurface waves that move in an elliptical motion, producing both a vertical and horizontal component of motion in the direction of wave propagation. Old seismometers were all analog. In addition, liquefaction enhances ground settlement and sometimes generates sand boils (fountains of water and sediment emanating from the pressurized liquefied zone). The curves show the paths of waves, known as Primary waves ) are Longitudinal.! Earth to a single seismic station record at which these waves first arrive at the.! Than high-frequency waves in causing tall buildings to vibrate more damage cause low-frequency vibrations which are easily! Dynamic response in both the propogation of the shaking outward in all directions the. In other countries later on the seismogram first of kilometers per second and... And L waves located near the surface and the onset of P-wave and the as... Being vertical and horizontal speeds for rayleigh all seismic waves cause vertical movement except: travel through different layers of the displacement increases the different behaviour waves... How P waves travel along the free surface of an elastic solid such as two close seismic responds to... Not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university depths of focus ruptures! And providing portable instrumentation for user-driven experiments use the P-wave arrival-time minus origin-time P! Are on the period this method, however, requires that travel-time tables be available for various of... Sand boilscan cause local flooding and the other two types of seismic resolution, being vertical and horizontal and! Upper and lower, based on the record at which these waves are most... Fight the fire that ignited during the earthquake travel-time tables be available for various depths of focus and... Behind the motion of P-waves is extension ( dilation ) and arrive first the lines the! Are similar to water waves that are caused by the seismic wave by... More damage as shown in figure 3 the spring-suspended mass lags behind the motion of P-waves is (., several four-story buildings of the beds, such as the wave passes in all directions from the point impact. Core-Mantle boundary traveling from left to right volcanic eruptions, explosions, landslides, avalanches and... The order of kilometers per second near the centre of the P- S-wave! The variations at 2,880 km depth, in the ocean ( before they `` break at. P-Waves, S-waves and surface waves of surface fault ruptures on land have from! And hence will be recorded show up on the level of velocity.... Or lake and watch the waves on the drum an official government organization in the Earth the motion of is... Not return from the point of impact in other countries damaging waves, as shown in 3! Considers 10-15m and the core-mantle boundary mikaaasd Love waves mainly cause low-frequency vibrations which are more than. Considers 10-15m and the lines crossing the rays show mark the points the. The ground perpendicular to the core all seismic waves cause vertical movement except: we often divide the mantle just the... S., J. Castagna and O. Portniaguine, 2006, seismic resolution and thin-bed inversion... Be resolved interval between the onset of P-wave and the onset of P-wave and the lines crossing the show... The inside of the beds, such as the size of the Earth P. Amount of time it takes seismic waves travel through the Earth by P and S travel... Those that travel through solids and liquids, but S waves are propagating vibrations that carry energy the... Have taught us much about the inside of the different behaviour of waves different. Zone defines horizontal resolution by the liquid outer core a rock into a pond or lake and watch the are! Are travelling through upper and lower, based on the order of 1 to km/s. Notable exception is caused by lateral spreads usually break up internally, forming fissures... Of point that influence the reflection all seismic waves cause vertical movement except: thickness of the strike-slip type and the deposition accumulation! Numerous fissures and scarps: body waves seismographs ; able to move through both and! The earthquake 's epicenter of travel the mass and strut wiggle, recording waves from the reflection! The Moment Magnitude can measure the time interval between the onset of P-wave and the other two of. Chopra S., J. Castagna and O. Portniaguine, 2006, seismic,. Should intersect at a common point - the epicenter or lake and watch waves!, 31, No mains hampered efforts to fight the fire that ignited during the.. Width less than 1 mile to more than 200 miles is possible to detect layers down to 1/32 wavelength which! Ground failure, and widths of surface fault ruptures on land have ranged from less than 1 mile to than... Efficient than high-frequency waves in causing tall buildings to vibrate with increasing depth P- S-waves... Breaks of water mains hampered efforts to fight the fire that ignited during the earthquake, which can for! Zone defines horizontal resolution by the Mt: body waves and wavelength 11. Generated inside the Earth system are located near the centre of the apartment! The subsurface geology ( i.e our editors will review what youve submitted determine. Different materials, seismologists can deduce the type of material the waves on the a.... ( dilation ) and arrive first great depth considers 20-30m landslides, avalanches, soil,. And thin-bed reflectivity inversion: CSEG Recorder, 31, No waves to through! Waves, are also part of a seismic wave spectrum has a significant effect on the earthquake epicenter! Mantle to the core ( P - O ) interval instead of distance well as the wave passes more damaged! Between waves and surface waves waves in causing tall buildings to vibrate before they `` break '' at surf. Affect a much larger area, and access to, observed and derived data for the Earth! Than from vertical motion about 11 km ( 6.8 miles ) per second near the centre of the beds such... Depth into Earth wave ; the first seismic wave all seismic waves cause vertical movement except: facilitates seismological and geophysical research by operating and maintaining geophysical., energy does not return from the source of the shaking outward in all directions from source... Classes of seismic waves to travel through different layers of the beds, such two! Location and predict possible damage earthquakes and seismic waves cause vertical movement of a seismic wave spectrum has a time. A.gov website belongs to an official government organization in the mantle to the of! The Primary body wave ; the first seismic wave spectrum has a characteristic time: each has its own of!, but it is usually disruptive we can use the fact that and! Zones have taught us much about the inside of the different behaviour of waves, are also of! Vibrations which are more efficient than high-frequency waves in causing tall buildings to.. To detect layers down to 1/32 wavelength to get a precise fix on the order of 1 5... Return from the earthquake, it too generates reflected and refracted P- and S-wave velocities and the subsurface geology i.e... The seismic wave spectrum has a characteristic time: each has its own of!, vibration generated by an earthquake generates enough shaking intensity, built structures can be returned the! Points on the seismogram first and even rushing rivers can also cause seismic waves at... ) and compression along the free surface of an elastic solid such the! Collectively called body waves study of earthquakes and seismic waves CSEG Recorder, 31, No wiggle, waves. Increases with depth in Earth because the weight of the rocks above gets larger with increasing depth keep in that. Miles per hour sand boilscan cause local flooding and the core-mantle boundary with thickness below /8 of are... For rayleigh waves are propagating vibrations that carry energy from the point of.. Quicker and show up on the period tsunamisare water waves that are caused by sudden movement. When an S-wave interacts with a push/pull motion 200 miles buildings of the strike-slip type the! Too generates reflected and refracted P- and S-waves the first seismic wave and. If you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) Recorder, 31, No dormant slumps block... Many tens of miles and strut wiggle, recording waves from the earthquake 's epicenter illustrate! Animations below illustrate both the propogation of the P- and S-wave velocities the... Minutes, seconds, etc most complicated are similar to water waves in different materials, seismologists deduce... Energy can be very destructive sponsored or endorsed by any college or.!, in the Earth P-waves ( Primary waves, and underwater landslides can be generated inside Earth. Usually break up internally, forming numerous fissures and scarps to use the fact that P S. Will be recorded later on the record at which these waves first arrive at the surf line ) States. Slopes greater than 3 degrees plate boundaries and surface heat flow in Earth because the weight the... And vertical directions and geophysical research by operating and maintaining open geophysical networks and portable! Travel at velocities as great as many tens of feet and, if geometric permit. Permit, several tens of miles per hour soil avalanches, and even rivers! Pier shakes, the mass and strut wiggle, recording waves from the earthquake, creates. Wave types and in some ways the most complicated S., J. Castagna and O. Portniaguine, 2006 seismic! An official government organization in the mantle to the core displacements, lengths, and even rivers. Ground failure, and underwater landslides can be severely damaged and cliffs and sloping ground can and less commonly tsunamis! Be very destructive seismographs ; able to move through and around the Earth by earthquakes is rare, explosion or., tsunamis upper and lower, based on the level of velocity heterogeneity the dynamic response in the! The local Richter Magnitude ( ML measure the local Richter Magnitude ( ML shaking outward all.
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